Computer Hardware and its Types

Features of Hardware

Hardware has many components which are important to the working of the computer like software hardware devices. The basic hardware of the computer is mother board, RAM and CPU. However there are many different devices which are supporting the functioning of computer like mouse, data ports, monitor and removable storage devices. The supporting hardware devices are divided into sub groups further like web cam, joystick, sound card and track ball etc. hardware is something which you can touch and feel and which can not communicate with you. Hardware is breakable or can be destroyed by external forces like shattered, hitting and electricity voltages.

Main Types of Computer Hardware

Computer hardware is divided into many different parts. The most important types of computer hardware are mother board, central processing unit, random access memory, basic input output system, power supply, video display controller, computer bus and hard disk.  An alternate name to main board or system board, mother board is a central circuit, which is a complicated electronic board kept into computer for working as an electronic machine. The next most important type of computer hardware is CPU. Central processing unit seeks the software commands and interprets and process data. Random access memory is the key component which allows the data to be reached in any form. Next is the basic input output system, which loads and runs the software. Power supply takes electric current to the output load. Video display controller helps in the logical conversion of the visual data in order to run a signal to be used by display medium. Computer bus is used to transfer the data within the computer or with other computers. Hard disk is the stable that stores data and information on a magnetic surface, placed on hard disk platters.

Some other Supporting Hardware

Some other types of hardware include CD ROM drive, Floppy disk and Zip drive. The hardware such as Floppy drive is no more in use. Floppy drive is a data storage device which was used to run a floppy. This mode of data transfer was slow and prone to viruses. The data in the floppy gets contaminated even after two to three times. However it was an inexpensive way of carrying data. CD ROM drives stands for compact disk read only memory. It is used to store data and softwares. This important medium is the million dollar business for software producers. CD is run on the CD ROM.CD can carry data and softwares to the ultimate users. The various applications which this device can carry are games, multimedia information, songs and movies. Zip drive is medium capacity storage device which is removable. It was introduced by Iomega in 1994. Mouse is another very important hardware device. It has two buttons, known as left and right mouse key. It has a central wheel which is used to move page high and low. The mouse is supported with a mouse pointer which helps in surfing through the display pages. Beside this computer hardware devices there are many more like Key Board, speakers, microphone and monitor.

Personal computer components

Primary Hardware Components of a PC

If we analyze our PC as a machine it has many complicated circuits and it has many hardware components like hard disk, RAM, CD ROM, DVD driver, monitor, mouse, keyboard and CPU. When we go to buy a PC we can either buy PC which is fully assembled having all the essential hardware components like monitor, CPU, keyboard and mouse or we can buy an unassembled system. The unassembled system allows us to buy a central processing unit of different company, separate mouse and a keyboard of different brand. The range and variety of all primary PC components is so much that we can change them every week. The development has not yet stop now there are wireless keyboards and laser mice available in the market. The development in the computers have also replaced many components like in laptops the screen and the mouse is attached in one single machine.

Memory Components of a PC

Memory components of a computer are like heart of the entire PC. It is the storage capability that has made the PC desirable for domestic and commercial applications. Random access memory and hard disk are two primary storage components of a PC. Random access memory or RAM is an impermanent storage of data. This data is not stored permanently and is automatically erased from the memory when the specific software application is closed. In order to increase the efficiency and speed of your PC, increase the RAM. The PC can perform various operations using this temporary memory. The time wasted in copying the data backward and forward to hard disk can be saved. On the contrary hard disk is the undeviating memory of the computer. The data we save during different software applications is not erased unless we want to clear it from the hard disk. The performance of the PC can be improved only if we increase the rotation and access speed of the hard disk. DVD or CD ROM is also important to store and carry software and other related data, which also helps in storing the data.

Types of Personal Computers and Related Hardware

There are many different types of personal computers like desktop, net books, laptop, palm top, single unit and works stations. The usual components of a computer may include central processing unit, mother board, main memory, video card, hard disk, and mouse keyboard and computer case. However the modern computers like palm tops, net books and laptops have removed the additional use of many hardware components like mice and keyboard. However if see and observe that the development in technology has erased the use of many hardware devices but the software needs are still there. For example if we install windows operating system in a desktop Pc and a laptop. We have to install pertinent softwares like windows office etc. the performance and speed of the Pc can be increased by using many softwares and hardware devices like PCI cards additional memory etc. today computer is like a basic necessity , it is a part of all commercial projects. It is the companion of students and travelers.

Computer Hardware Specification

Purpose of Hardware Specification

The desktop users can access varied levels of softwares, operating systems, high and level drivers and to the graphical applications. The purpose of the separate hardware and software specifications is to allow for quick and adaptable operating system and software rules. The hardware specifications change with the change in users of the hardware. For example the industrial users have different hardware specifications and a college lab has different hardware specifications. The PC hardware specifications of the industry are more demanding and require the integration of software and hardware in order to match the standards of the production. Therefore more advanced circuits are usually required for the processors which are used in industry. Another major consideration is the selection of compatible operating system matched with the needs of your hardware. The most versatile operating system to be used is usually is of Windows and today it is XP.

Components of the Hardware

Hardware specification is like a process in some cases. Suppose you are planning to build a network of computers then the hardware specifications would be a key process and step for your planning. For a network hardware specifications might include servers, towers, racks, mobile media storage devices, printers, routers, hubs, modems, communications controllers and display stations. The hardware requirements which are helpful in increasing the performance of the system are also dependent on many external factors like the running of different applications on the same computer infrastructure. The software is greatly influenced by the hardware specification. Higher specification computer is well suited to run variable software applications. Some other components like good processor, free hard disk of 2 GB, RAM of 4GB, display adapter, monitor, keyboard, mouse, CD ROM and network adapters are necessary to hardware specifications. The processor support for running operating system and various other software applications is necessary. Hardware specification also takes into account the fact that if more than one software or program can run on the same infrastructure.

Hardware Specifications for Windows

The windows operating system can be installed on low system specifications. Any PC today is capable of running windows operating systems. The system requirements for modern PCs reject the running of outdated operating systems such as windows 98 and Windows 95. The hardware specifications in order to match the recent windows XP may include upgrading the RAM, 1.5 GB requirement of hard disk empty space, some high resolution monitor and video cards. The actual specification varies with the system configuration along with the features and applications which are installed. The hardware specification for a network is different because it requires the installation of extra space in hard disk. The hardware specifications include network adapters, printers, CD ROM; DVD drives, well-matched pointing devices, graphic cards and sound cards. In large networks and in commercial systems there is no need to operate on obsolete operating systems. Windows XP is the best option for commercial systems. it can match well with your hardware specifications. Recent launch of windows 7 asks for higher level system specification in order to run and perform well

Development in Intel Processors Technology

Earlier Computers

 The early processors were designed using electrical relays and vacuum tubes. With the invention of transistors the technology improved in 1950 and so as the capability of the processors. Transistors were constructed on the copper and    printed circuit boards that are engraved on a board which was not electrical afterwards various other components were added. Through the manufacturing of the Apollo guidance for the NASA, scientists discovered the integrated circuits. These integrated circuits became the base of the modern computers. The integrated circuits allowed for the construction of small chips. These chips contained many individual transistors embedded on a single silicone material. The production of integrated circuits helped to reduce the size of the computers and also helped in increasing the speed of processing. The first micro processor was invented by Intel in 1970. This processor was known as 4004, it was capable of performing larger manipulations but in small devices unlike its counterparts. When the first personal computer was introduced the processor technology largely shifted to the use of micro processors.

History of Microprocessors

As mentioned previously the first microprocessors was developed by Intel in 1971, which was known as the 4004 microprocessor. Its next legacy 8008 was invented in 1972. This microprocessor was more powerful than its predecessors. It was declared as the first mark 8 computer, which were the first computers considered practical to be used in homes. After two years in 1974, 8080 Microprocessor was developed. This processor became the brainpower to first emerging PC. The large scale supply of the 8086 to 8080 processors to the IBM PC helped Intel to become the business tycoon of the 1970’s. After the period of four years, 286 microprocessors came to surface, which was able to load and run all the softwares present at that time. Next generation Intel 1386 was introduced in 1985. This microprocessor contained 100 times more transistors than were embedded in 4004. This microprocessor contained 32-biy chip which was able to perform multi tasks and run many applications. Intel486 was the first color computer introduced in 1989.

The Era of Pentium Processors

Almost around 1993 Intel Pentium process came to the face. This processor was able to run many sets of instructions. This processor was also able to integrate real world information like photographs, speech and sounds. The first Pentium Pro processor was introduced in 1995; it was meant to support 32-bit server applications. This microprocessor was able to boast 5.5 million transistors. In 1997 Intel Pentium 2 processor aroused which contained more than 7.5 million transistors. This processor was bale to run many audio and video applications. It contained single edge contact technology able to carry very high speed cache memory. Intel Celeron processors were developed in 1999 for giving consumers good performance and compatible speed. Intel Pentium processor 3 was an amazing invention of the century which incorporated more than 9.5 million transistors which allowed 3D, video and audio streaming.

Time of Pentium 4 Processors

The extended version of Pentium 3 was Xeon which was helpful in performing commercial level activities. It was suitable to be used as network servers and workstations in research labs. Right in the year 2000 Intel Pentium processor 4 helped in performing advance multi media applications. It has about 42 million transistors. The multi media applications like movies , TV, video downloading from internet, 3D graphics,MP3 connectivity, real time video and voice chatting. The speed of this processor was amazingly swift. This processor ran at the speed of 1.5 MHz which is way faster than the 4004. 4004 microprocessor had a speed of only 108 KHz.  In 2001 Intel Xeon processor was targeted to provide more speed and performance. This provided consumers with a high speed Pc at really affordable prices. The aim of the next generation processor was to provide the end users with high speed and low price connectivity. Xeon processors were aimed to increase the capability of the workstations to about 90% higher than what it used to be. These processors were really suitable to download applications form the internet.

Itanium Processors

 Itanium processors were developed in 2001. These processors were really help in supporting enterprise servers and advance workstations. This processor was built by using EPIC technology (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing). This processor was highly efficient in performing large enterprise applications. The various transactions which this processor can support are E-commerce security dealings; computer aided manufacturing, is really helpful in mechanical engineering and advanced scientific computing. The important requirement of today’s PCs is a really fast processor to perform fast and speed computations and help in fats internet connectivity. Itanaium 2 processors a second important member of the 64 bit product family released in 2002.  It is based on the architecture of data intensive, crucial technical and business applications for supporting computer based manufacturing and safe internet transactions. The next development in this field so far by Intel was Pentium M processors released in 2003. This processor is based on the Centrino mobile technology. These processors provided the wireless internet connectivity for portable digital devices like laptops. This technology helped in producing systems with built in wireless internet connectivity or LAN card inside the PC. The further development was Montecito which was released in 2006 and contained dual core installation of Itanium 2 and Montvale 2007. Montvale contains swift IA-64 chip which is to date the fastest.

Working of PCI cards

History of PCI Cards

The progress on the PCI cards began in1990 in a private lab. This lab was owned by Intel and was attached to the architecture development department. PCI card was first installed in servers and they took the place of early buses like MCA and EISA. However PCI did not receive widespread recognition till 1994. It became popular with the advent of the Pentium personal computers. It became so popular that it also became the part of the 486 processors. Apple computer manufacturers also used PCI cards for their professional Macintosh. Overtime the development in the PCI cards continued. New and advanced models of PCI cards came to the surface such as PCI express. Hence PCI cards become an essential part of the motherboard.

Types of Computer Buses

Any desktop Pc has two main buses known as system bus and the one that communicates with the hardware. The system bus is able to connect CPU with the main memory. The one that communicates with the hardware is known as PCI bus. PCI is a slow bus. This bus is connected to the system with the help of the bus bridge. Bus Bridge is a kind of traffic police a sergeant which helps in assimilating the data from the different buses and delivers it to the system bus. PCI is able to connect as compared to the other busses like VL bus. One can have more than a single PCI on its motherboard. The PCI chip is able to regulate the working of the PCI indifferent of the working and the speed of the CPU. Typical PCI has a width of 32 bits and it has a speed of 33Mhz. the most recent improvement in the PCI cards known as PCI X has a data transfer rate of 1GB with a speed of 133 MHz. The PCI bus was satisfactory for several years, providing an adequate amount of bandwidth for all the peripherals the majority users might want to connect. In the middle of 1990s, graphics cards were becoming more powerful, resulting 3D games were asking for higher recital. The PCI was not able to handle the entire data stream passing between the graphics and main processor. Consequently, Intel discovered the AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port). AGP is a bus devoted totally to graphics cards. The bandwidth of the AGP bus is not shared with other apparatuses. Although PCI is persistently the bus of choice for most peripherals, AGP has essentially taken the particular task of graphics dispensation.

PCI Express Cards

Peripheral component interconnect card express or PCIe is an expansion to the PCI cards. PCIe 2.1 is the latest standard of PCI cards used in the personal computers. PCI express is equally beneficial for personal computers, commercial and industrial units. PCIe cards are based on the point to point serial links. PCIe is also used in Express card Laptop. PCIe devices remain in touch with the help of the logical interconnect. Interconnect is a point to point communiqué spot between different PCI ports. Therefore the PCI requests and interrupts can take place. In order to install the PCIe card it is important to have open ended sockets. PCIe mini cards are also on the move. The host devices are able to provide support to the PCI express and other USB 2.0 connections. Wireless LAN PCI cards are most recent addition to the PCI express cards.

Mother board and its Functions

Components of a Motherboard

Most commonly mother boards are of two types AT and ATX main board. At motherboards are now completely eradicated from the use. The ATX main board is 12 inches in width and almost 9 inches deep. ATX is relatively more reliable and it has 6 -pin connector. ATX mother board has many components attached to it which are important for its functioning. The key components of the logic board are either at connector side or embedded inside the board. The components present ate the connector side are mouse connector, keyboard connector, USB ports, serial ports, VGA ports, power supply plug and Parallel ports. The other components include CPU chip, RAM slots, PCI slot, ISA slot, AGP, CPU slot and floppy controller. The peripheral devices which are residing on the mother board are either directly fixed on it or are entrenched using sockets.

Some Main Functions of the Logic Board

BIOS or basic input output and Boot memory also resides on the motherboard. BIO is a kind of software which works when we turn on the computer. BIO is also called a lower level program because it is installed in the hardware. The job of the BIOS is to act as a communication channel between motherboard and softwares. Mother Board plays a vital role in running the operations and programs on your PC. It is this printed circuit which contains chips and many expansion cards to facilitate your working. It does not matter which ever component you attach to your motherboard, the basic functioning of that device is dependent upon on the main board. Mother board also contains a chip set. This chip set is really essential as it monitors the data flow in your personal computer. It guides the movement and flow of data through the buses. Motherboard chipset guides the data towards the correct paths and ultimately correct destinations. This chipset also scrutinizes the processors direct access to the main memory. Therefore it is mother board where you plug in your video cards, memory, cache and cards.

Other features and Functions of Main Board

Motherboards are not produced in only one shape and size. The shape and the size of the mother board is adjusted depending on the need of the manufacturers. The size of the previous motherboards like AT were really large however now the size of modern main boards are prone to many changes. The mother boards cannot be discarded form the electronic devices because of their size. Today they have been modified into smaller units in order to become parts of smaller digital devices like laptops. This makes laptop computers really difficult to repair and upgrade sometimes. Only the manufacturer can help repair it again. This is because the design of the miniature main board is really complex. The presence of micro dies on the motherboard also makes it an expensive embellishment. This is the reason why small digital appliances are costly. Mother boards cannot alone load the memory and run the system for this purpose they need non volatile memory. Mother boards use BIOS in order to boot.

Introduction to Intel Core 2 duo

Range of core 2 Processors

There is a wide variety and range of products associated with the core 2 Duo technology. Core 2 Duo with a processor E4300 was released in 2007 having L2 cache of 2MB. The next processor is known as core 2 Duo E4400 released in April 2007. Core 2 Duo E4500 and E4600 were released in 22 July and October, 21 2007 respectively. These processors also contain the L2 cache of about 2MB. Core 2 duo E4700 was released in 2008 in the month of March. This processor has the frequency rate of 2600MHz with L2cache of 2MB. Intel core 2 duo processors come in both 45nm and 65nm having virtualization, trusted execution technology and clock speed of about 2 GHz.

Features of Core 2 Duo

Core 2 Duo is a wave of technology and improved processors. This processor is entrenched with variable features. The core 2 Duo processors have sustained the back ward compatibility with the software and existing hardware. Though the older hardware is not capable of making use of the advanced features of the core 2 duo still they are compatible to work well with them. Instead if e put it in other words our supporting processor is able to match well with them. The existing motherboard like Intel LGA 755 is capable enough to accept the core 2 duo processing only with the up gradation of BIOS. Modern core 2 Duo processors are also efficient enough to run two operating systems at a time by help working virtual machines. The virtual machines are smart enough to share physical hardware, having separate operating system and busy running their own applications. Therefore core 2 Duo processors have removed the need for the high end servers. The inclusion of advanced security features is also a drastic improvement in these systems. It is core 2 Duo which has enabled to set the trusted Platform Module as an important standard for upcoming PC’s.

Some Remarkable Improvements

The introductions of core 2 duo processors have also improved the functioning of the net books. The features like appropriate power consumption has helped in increasing the battery life of the current net books. Besides being really improved core 2 processors are also using L2 cache. This compromise is made in order to reduce the power needs needed to charge or run the computers. However the cache size is varied. Like for example Allendale processors have 2Mb cache while Conroe has 4 MB cache. The reduced power needs of the Merom processors have made it desirable to use for net books. The cache utilization is regarding the core 2 duo processors is amazing as the 2 core allows the caches to compete for cache allocation. Therefore the resulting speed of the processor is simple remarkable. Moreover the processor is capable of running four instructions in single clock cycle. This is the highest speed as compared to the previous processors. Core 2 duo processors have the capability to replace AMD’s 4 core processor which was designed to beat the efficiency of the core 2 Processors and their underlined features.

Intel Centrino Processor Technology

Next Generation Code Names

Most recent codenames like Callpella and Huron River platform are sixth and seventh generations of improvement in this magnificent system. Callpella platform was expected to launch in early 2009 but the reduced demand for chips and economic recession resulted in its delay. However it was launched in October 2009. This chipset was loaded with features like coding, decoding, videopaly back and editing. This processor was based on the Nehalem Micro Architecture. Next generation codename is Huron river Platform launched in 2010. It is seventh generation of Centrino platform. This system contains mobile express series chipset 6.The microprocessor contained in it is based on Sandy Bridge Architecture. It is full of wireless modules. If the vendors want to qualify for Intel Centrino compatibility they have to deploy all three basic components like chip set, processors and wireless network. Otherwise if they only use a processor or a wireless connectivity they would end up with products like Intel core and Celeron. Thus Centrino is a complete package and not a chipset alone.

Promotion of the Centrino

When ever people try to compare the success factors of AMD processors and Intel technologies they always end up concluding that Intel invests a lot of money for the promotion and projection of their products. This is one of the success factors for the Intel processors. Promoting a product opens new horizons of opportunity for your current product line. This also gives the viewers a lot of information about the qualities and features of the product. This is the reason why Intel has invested more than $300 million only for promoting Centrino technology. Intel mass marketing efforts are not only beneficial for them but also for those vendors who incorporate the Centrino technology in their laptops. Such vendors cannot afford to run wide scale promotion for their products. This intelligent marketing along with has also helped people to remove their confusions regarding the technology. For example those who are buying Centrino laptops are well aware that they are not buying core 2 Duo and Intel Core. They know that they are paying exactly for the Centrino label.

Features of the Centrino

This technology is aimed to burst through the current wireless performance. This exceptional product is full of different features like long battery life.  It provides wireless compatibility like with WiFi and WiMax. It is build according to the 802.11 standards. These devices provide 24/7 wireless connectivity at the same time consuming very less electricity. This system is 50% more efficient than ordinary wireless devices. It contains a 3MB cache. These systems are designed to meet the individual as well as business needs. Student can use to become the part of the campus area network. It can also prove to be friend of audio and video film makers. It is also helpful for the people who make and edit documentaries. The reason is that this system is loaded with multimedia packages like coding/decoding video and play back editing. As the company claims it can provide HD video indoctrination 90% faster than the others of its kind.

Introduction to Intel atom Processors

Development Overtime

Intel Atom is the next generation of A100/110 microprocessors. Intel A100/110 microprocessors were developed on 90nm with a cache of about 512KB and have a speed of 600MHz to 800MHz. the codename for Intel Atom is Silverthorne and Diamondville. Prior to the announcement of the Silverthorne, manufacturers of laptops were speculating that Intel Atom would be close competitor to the AMD Geode systems. However in 2007 after the launch of Diamondville the manufacturers realized that the worlds of microprocessors have been revolutionized again by Intel. It was aimed to be used by one laptop per child association’s project. Atom was known as the brand name under which Intel decided to sell Silverthorne and other supporting chipsets like Menlow. Diamondville and Silverthorne are based on the identical micro architecture. Silverthorne was termed as Atom Z series and Diamondville is known as Atom N series. Silverthorne became the part of the expensive mobile devices whereas low cost devices were embedded with Diamondville. The common devices like desktop computers and notebooks essentially used Diamondville. Intel also established a joint venture with Lenovo in order to develop IdeaPad U8. The weight of this chip was 280gms with a diameter of about 12cm. it was highly efficient in terms of picture display and portability. It provided touch screen facility along with trouble-free internet viewing.

Features of the Atom Processors

Intel Atom is considered to be the smallest chip having very small transistors. This chip was designed on the basis of micro architecture. It was aimed to become the very necessary part of the MID’s (Mobile Internet Devices) and the low cost personal computers. It is small in size but it can provide very high internet connectivity and display on the mobile devices. Intel’s vice president believes that it will revolutionize the world of microprocessors. The invention of Intel atom and other related low power microchips helps the mobile devices to operate at very high speed. This revolutionary processor has about 47 million transistors embedded on it. it has a measurement of about 26mm Intel’s smallest chips with very high speed internet viewing.  This technology also offers many different benefits like long battery life, low power consumption and energy efficiency provided in really small portable devices. The company claims that Intel atom was invented with a view to increase performance and lowering the power demands. This chipset is aimed to run according to the Intel’s architecture.

Future Product Launches

The development and creativity with the Intel atom is not limited to the Silverthorne and Diamondville. More development is expected in the coming years. For example it is expected that Intel would launch pineview Atom chipsets. More launches will take place in 2011 with a new version of Atom platform called “cedar Trail”. This chip would take on 32nm technology. The purpose of these new technologies is to swank the performance and the clock rate. However these chips are facing AMD‘s nonstop competition with a product series like Athlon Neo. Cedar view is expected to double the graphical power view. Though Intel is facing competition in market but it also collaborated with many companies like Lenovo and Taiwan semiconductor manufacturing company in order to improve the products.

How dual core Processors Work?

Working of the Dual Core Processors

The working of the traditional processors is relatively slow. This is because the set of instructions which we fed into the system is executed and then stored in cache. If we need to retrieve the data which is stored Ram or other storage devices, access to this data slows the system. The situation is difficult to handle when it comes to perform multitasks and store it on the hard disk. The data retrieval is far slower than the actual working of the CPU. The processor has to move forward and backward for executing and storing set of instructions or programs. Hence as a result the CPU works really slowly. The dual core processors have overcome this deficiency very well. Each processor is capable of handling the data stream concurrently. When one processor is involved in executing its set of instructions the other processor can access the data from the system bus or local bus. The working of the dual core takes place on the same motherboard. This means one does not have to install additional motherboard to run two processors at a time. The users can view remarkable increase in performance even after initial use.

Requirement to use Dual Core

The dual core processor requires the OS to have a multi threading capability along with software which contains SMT (Simultaneous Multi Threading Technology) technology written into its code. It is important to use SMT software other wise the system would not be able to make use of dual processors. One of the most common examples of simultaneous multi threading software is Adobe Photoshop. However it should not be confused with multi processor structures. The multi processors are systems with two individual central processing units while the dual core processors share the resources are embedded on the single chip. If we compare the two systems the multi processor system is relatively fast. This is because each individual system has to work with its own resources. However the performance of the dual core is better than the single core processors. Pentium D is the dual core version of the preliminary Pentium 4 processors. Further models include Itanium 2 processors, Intel Xeon processor and Pentium M processor.

Difference between Core Processors

Most often people confuse core 2 duo technology with dual core processors. Sometimes due to name but there are many differences in both the technologies. All the core 2 duo processors are dual core processors and core 2 Duo is part of dual core processor technology. Pentium core2 duo processors are the next generation of Intel processors based on the 65nm platform. It was developed on entirely new architecture and design. The dual core processors deliver really efficient performance more effective multi tasking and offers very high speed data processing. These processors are expected to conserve electricity more than 25%. Dual core processors are able to perform many multi tasks thus removing the need to increase the cache. Dual core is embedded on the single integrated circuit. Whereas the new technologies like quad core requires 2 individual integrated circuits in order to operate. The speed and efficiency of the dual core processors have forced the world to switch to these proficient processors not only for the individual use but also for the business use.

Intel Vs AMD processors

Historical Overview

Intel was founded in 1968 and is considered the founder of X86 processors. AMD was a follower of the technology. AMD was established in 1969 in Sunnyvale. AMD and Intel compete in all product markets from the making of the processors to the graphic chips. Which ever is the case AMD is at second place and Intel is always the top leading brand. In 1982, Intel and AMD signed a contract for the exchange of technology. AMD took the license and became the second largest manufacture of 8086processors. This processor was the major requirement for the IBM PCs. AMD went on producing Am286 when suddenly Intel terminated the agreement. The termination took place in 1986 afterwards AMD charged Intel for this breach of contract and they were accountable for this act. This long case ended in 194 when AMD was given an opportunity to copy the versions of the Intel codes.

Comparison of Processors

Without moving to the history let us briefly compare the Intel Pentium 3 and AMD K-6 III. K-6 III is aimed to increase the life of the system using socket 7 whereas Pentium III is intended to be used with Intel 440BX. Both processors are compatible for 3D applications. However the deficiency comes in terms of software support.  Both processors are aimed to provide high performance however AMD is capable of providing only good integer calculations and lack in same clock frequency. However the quality analysis states that the CPU which is best in terms of price and performance are Pentium III. Intel Celeron is serving the major commercial and server markets. The Intel processors are more compatible to be deployed as workstations and servers. Celeron processors K-6 III is better in terms of performance than its counterpart like K-6 II. This is because of the incorporation of 256Kbyte cache working well with clock frequency. The performance is improved to the level that it can be used for business and high end softwares applications very well. Another important contribution in the processor world is the introduction of AMD Athlon which is considered similar in performance with the Intel Pentium 4. However AMD Athlon is nearly half in price than that of Pentium 4.

Market Share of Intel and AMD

The market share of Intel is obviously much more than the AMD processors. The knowledge of the AMD processors is limited to the professionals only.  The promotion and wide scale production of Intel processors have brought it to the point that even a layman knows that which processor to order.  Besides the price of Intel processors is high it is preferred over the AMD processors. Moreover AMD is losing its market share to Intel. The market share of Intel is about 80.2 % while leaving only 18.2% share for AMD. AMD tried to escape with Athlon64 in 2003. However Intel’s core 2 duo processor left it far behind and once again proved its lead in the processor market. Recently Intel forecasted revenue of $500million and the actual revenue surpassed it way far and it totaled to $9 billion, while leaving behind AMD with only 1.82 billion.

Analog to Digital Conversion with in hardware

Examples of Digital to Analog Conversion

There are various examples of analog to digital conversion. For example when we scan a picture, the analog information provided by the light present in the picture is converted to digital signal and the process is completed. analog signals are naturally present in the air like they are present in light, they are present  in sound etc. another famous example of analog to digital conversion is the conversion of voice to digital signals using VoIP. The digital conversion is not limited to the working of computers and related hardware but it is also part of our daily life. Another example of analog to digital conversion is the use of telephone. The recording of songs on a CD is another example of analog to digital conversion, here sound is converted into digital numbers which are then stored on the disk.

The Mechanism of Conversion

The digital conversion means the use of binary coding for data transmission and output. The digital signals work only by using only two numbers known as 0 and 1. Any number which is different from the binary code is eliminated form its way. This is the reason why we do not hear any additional noises when we turn on a song in a CD. Analog to digital conversion is the key of compressing a bulk of information into binary numbers and store it in computer and other storage devices. This digital conversion allows for plenty of data to be stored on a single small machine like in laptops, workstations and in desktop computer. This helps in saving bandwidth and storage space. In a PC the analog signals are converted to digital signals with the help of microprocessors. This mechanism is quiet complex and needs necessary hardware and software capabilities. The basic mechanism involves around converting continues signals to discrete signals.

Basic Analog to Digital Converter Structures

The analog to digital converter is a device which is capable of converting an analog signal into compressed digital signal for further presentation, storage and processing. The most common seven digital structures are direct conversion, ramp compare, successive approximation, delta encoded, pipeline, time stretch and sigma delta. The use of these structures is dependent upon the hardware source of the analog signal to the destination hardware in order to utilize best data encryption and utilization. In order to reverse the process from analog to digital conversion to digital to analog conversion additional converter is required which perform the function of a translator. For example the computer sound cards which operate in the digital to analog mechanism. The analog to digital conversion is used in digital TVs, cameras and other video captures. New microcontrollers technology used to convert analog to digital converters helped in reducing the size of the chip. The analog to digital conversion always required very high accuracy and resolution. The analog to digital conversion increase the bandwidth and the speed of the hardware devices. The modern wireless applications and radar systems require high speed signal conversion in order to deliver accurate and swift message to the ultimate consumer.

Technology used in AMD processors

Introduction to AMD

AMD is basically an American semi conductor company which provides processors and related technologies like mother boards, chip sets, embedded processors, graphic processors, personal computers, games, consoles and many handheld devices. However if you compare it with the world’s leading processor supplier like Intel it comes in the second place. AMD was founded in 1969 in Sunnyvale USA. It was considered to be the second largest supplier of X86 Architecture and third largest supplier of graphic processors. From the time of its inception it is rival and the leading competitor of Intel, the worlds leading processors supplier.  AMD is a manufacturer of many leading processors technologies like AM2900, AMD 29K, AMD7910 and AMD7911. In 2006 AMD started a successful merger with ATI technologies and it was such successful effort that ATI is now part of AMD. The various generations of microprocessors include AM2900 series,X86 Architecture processors, K5 series, K6 series,K7 series, K8 series, K9 series and K10 series.

The Technology Used in AMD

The different series of processors were based on different architecture and technologies. First generation AMD processors like AM2900 were created in 1975. The basic design of this technology is founded on the principles of slice topology. The purpose of the slice technology is to make them compatible components for computer control unit. AM29000 was created on the RISC strategy. RISC or reduced instruction set computer is a type of standard for the design of CPU. Am29100 is a list of supporting chips and micro controllers. These processors are really intelligent that they can even perform the operations of the softwares. AM29200 family was intended for the microcontroller computer. The Am29300, AM29400, AM29500, Am29600, AM29700, Am29800 and Am29900 are also among the list of Am2900 family.  Next family of microprocessors is X86 Architecture which was a variable length dual address design with focus on backward compatibility. The entire K series is associated with AMD’s x86 processors. Opteron was the first processor to run the AMD86 instruction set. It was released in 2003. This processor was aim to compete with the server and workstation market which was already captured by Intel Xeon.

Some Important Features of the AMD Processors

An important feature of AMD processors is advance clock calibration, which alters the internal settings of the computer by allowing individual settings of the core and the CPU. OMD overdrive allows for the real time adjustments in the systems. another important feature of AMD is AMD virtualization , which is known as the virtual extension of AMD 86 processors. Cool and quiet is another promising feature of AMD processors which allows for low voltage and power utilization and hence low temperature of the PC. Enhanced virus protection is also an interesting feature of today’s AMD processors which prevents the buffer overloading and attack of malicious viruses. Presidio is a viable feature of AMD processors because it makes use of particular commands for trusted computations. Hyper transport is a major replacement for front buses and can also be used for direct connect architecture. Thermal design power is a technology and feature which helps the processors to determine the maximum heat they have to deal with. The CPU or there processors are the brain of the PC and there are unlimited features and types of modern processors it is your duty to find a suitable processors catering your needs well.

History of Computer Hardware

Early Digital Computers

 If we briefly analyze the history of computers we can see innumerable changes in the hardware overtime. Zues wasintroduced in Germany in 1941; it uses binary coding for its operation. It involves the lector mechanical computing mechanism. Then after one year in 1942 Attansoff Berry computer came to surface with electric binary computing mechanism. Its origin was USA. Colluses Mark 1was a UK based technology and it emerged in 1944. It was also based on binary numeral principle. In the same year in Harvard, Harvard Mark 1 IBM ASCC was introduced. ENIAC was introduced in 1946; it had its origin from UK. The modified version of ENIAC was introduced in 1948.as in 1949 EDSAC, Manchester Mark and CSIRAC came forward. The early computers and the associated hardware were really expensive and heavy. For example first portable computer weighed about 25kg.

History of Associated Hardware

With the development in computers the hardware of the Pc was also improved. The first mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1963. it was a relatively instable device which was set at a 90 degrees angle . This mouse had no ball. The optical mouse was invented in 1980; it did not receive widespread popularity during the early phase of its invention. First portable computer was introduced by IBM in 1975.it was of the size of a small suit case and it also required external power in order to operate. The use of random access memory started in 1951. This memory was earlier known as magnetic core memory. The invention of Ram can be contributed to An Wang and Jay Forrester. Core memory was the base of early computers which was replaced in 1970 by integrated silicone RAM chips. The first hard disk was introduced by IBM, it was used in IBM 305RAMAC. It became part of the first IBM computers in 196. it has a data transfer rate of about 8,800 characters  per second.

Development in Additional Hardware

Today computer is far more than a calculation device. It can serve many other purposes like networking and web browsing, advance computing requirements. The other important hardware devices like printers, web cam, audio systems and web servers are also part and parcel of today’s PC. Hence their history is also very important. Let’s analyze when the first laser printer came to surface. The first laser printer was conceived by Gary Starkweather in 1969.however id did not become popular unless IBM introduced their branded laser printer known as IBM 3800 in 1976. It was as large as a room. The first web server was introduced in 1991, which was used by Tim Berners while discovering World Wide Web at CERN. This web server was a next workstation which helped in putting out first web page online. If we go through the history of the hardware, 70% contribution in this field can be contributed to the IBM. Another important invention of this company was floppy Disks. Floppy disks were invented in 1970 and they were used till 1990’s however today there use is history. These remarkable inventions changed our lives now the world has become a global village due to the spread of networking technologies. However the foundation for these technologies came from early development in hardware.